Revisiting the Rule of Ḥiyāzat al-Mubāḥāt (Whoever Appropriates Owns): An Assessment of Its Relationship with Cryptocurrency Mining

Authors

1 Assistant Professor, Department of Fiqh and Private Law, Shahid Motahari University, Tehran, Iran (Corresponding Author)

2 Graduate of Fiqh and Fundamentals of Islamic Law, Imam Khomeini and Islamic Revolution Research Institute, Tehran, Iran

3 MA Student in Fiqh and Private Law, Shahid Motahari University, Tehran, Iran

10.30471/jee.2026.11362.2552

Abstract

Extended Abstract
 
Introduction and Objectives: In the age of emerging financial technologies, cryptocurrencies, as a new phenomenon, have raised numerous fiqhi (Islamic jurisprudential) and legal challenges concerning their nature and legitimacy. Among these, one of the most fundamental questions is on what basis the initial ownership of cryptocurrencies obtained through the process of mining is established, and whether it may be analyzed within the framework of the recognized causes of ownership in Imami fiqh and Iranian law. The importance of this issue is doubled by the fact that, pursuant to Article 140 of the Civil Code, the causes of ownership in the Iranian legal system—which is influenced by Imami fiqh—have been enumerated, and the initial acquisition of property cannot be assessed outside this framework. Therefore, if the process of cryptocurrency mining cannot be subsumed under one of the valid causes of ownership, the fiqhi-legal analysis of the ownership resulting from it will also face serious ambiguities. Among the views advanced, some researchers have attempted to justify the miner’s ownership of the mined cryptocurrency by relying on the fiqhi rule “whoever appropriates owns,” that is, the “appropriation of ownerless permissibles” (ḥiyāzat al-mubāḥāt). According to this analysis, just as a person may become the owner of original permissibles and ownerless property by taking control over them, a miner likewise, by carrying out mining operations and obtaining cryptocurrency units, appropriates them and becomes their owner. At first glance, this approach, especially in light of the expansion of new instances of property and technological developments, possesses analytical appeal. However, the principal issue is whether, fundamentally, a cryptocurrency before mining is an instance of permissible property lacking an owner, and whether the mining process may customarily be regarded as a kind of domination and direct possession over such property. With a focus on precisely this issue, the present study seeks to critically revisit the rule “whoever appropriates owns” and to assess its relation to the mechanism of cryptocurrency mining. The first aim of the article is to explain precisely the concept and pillars of the appropriation of permissibles in fiqh and law. The second aim is to evaluate the possibility of conforming these pillars to the technical process of cryptocurrency mining, especially in networks such as Bitcoin. The third aim is to demonstrate the analytical shortcomings of the appropriation model in this field and to propose an alternative framework for the fiqhi and legal analysis of ownership arising from cryptocurrency mining. Ultimately, the article seeks to clarify that a proper explanation of the nature of cryptocurrency mining is not merely a theoretical discussion, but rather plays a fundamental role in determining the legitimacy, transactional effects, and legal status of these assets.
Method: This research, using a descriptive-analytical method and benefiting from the approach of library research and reference to authoritative fiqhi and legal sources, seeks to clarify, first, what the criteria and pillars for the realization of the appropriation of permissibles are, and whether the process of cryptocurrency mining, in terms of its nature and effects, is capable of conformity with this fiqhi institution or not; second, assuming the inadequacy of the analysis based on appropriation, whether it is possible to provide an alternative framework, including general ju’ālah (reward-based contract), for the fiqhi and legal explanation of ownership resulting from cryptocurrency mining.
Results and Findings: The findings of the research show that although the rule “whoever appropriates owns” is one of the important fiqhi rules in the field of initial acquisition of ownership and may be inspiring even when dealing with new instances, its direct application to the process of cryptocurrency mining faces serious obstacles. Through renewed examination of the concept of “appropriation” and its constituent elements, it became clear that certain conditions are necessary for the realization of appropriation, namely: “obtaining,” “the intent and intention of the appropriator,” “the legal capacity of the appropriator,” “the originality and directness of the appropriator,” “the customary nature of appropriation,” “the absence of prior appropriation and ownership,” and “the existence of the subject of appropriation.” Examination of the conformity of cryptocurrency mining with the rule of appropriating permissibles shows that this conformity faces fundamental challenges because some of the aforementioned conditions are not fulfilled; first, the condition of “the customary nature of appropriation” is itself open to serious reflection in the process of cryptocurrency mining; although high energy consumption, environmental harms, and noise and thermal pollution are among the major challenges in this field, in view of the existence of technological solutions (such as transition to low-consumption algorithms), industrial solutions (such as the use of renewable energies and heat recovery), and supervisory solutions (such as the obligation to comply with standards and obtain licenses), it may be said that the realization of this condition depends on observance of the aforesaid considerations. Second, the nature of cryptocurrencies is such that before mining they do not have external existence; rather, they are created in the mining process. Third, the structure of cryptocurrencies exists within the framework of pre-designed protocols, which indicates a kind of supervisory right of the creators of the network, and they cannot be regarded as original permissibles. Likewise, the absence of a clear relinquishment by the initial owner (even if anonymous) also negates the possibility of conformity with derivative appropriation. On the basis of these considerations, the article concludes that explaining ownership of mined cryptocurrencies on the basis of the rule of appropriating permissibles faces fundamental problems and cannot, without strain, provide a reliable and defensible basis for this type of acquisition. At the same time, in order to provide an alternative explanation, the research turns its attention to the institution of “general ju’ālah” and considers it, from an analytical perspective, closer to the reality of mining.
Conclusion: Overall, the principal achievement of the research is that the appropriation model, although at first sight it appears attractive for analyzing cryptocurrency mining, encounters important obstacles under precise fiqhi and legal scrutiny; for this reason, in order to properly understand the basis of ownership of these assets, greater attention should be paid to alternative models, especially general ju’ālah.

Keywords

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